So as it turns out, the flowers just smelling and looking pretty for us to enjoy. Apparently there is an ulterior motive for their bright and interesting colours, not to mention their attractive scents. In fact, not only is their scent not for us, it’s not for anything but themselves. It’s true, their lavish colours and smells are intended for one purpose only; to attract various insect pollinators in order to make it easier for the plants to reproduce through pollination.

Studies recently published in The American Naturalist have shown that a small group of plants angiosperms have adapted to interfere with the perceptions –both visually and in other manners- of certain insect varieties. This is achieved through not only visual mimicry, but also the use of specific scent compounds that mimic the select species sex pheromones (Ellis 2010). Angiosperms are the group of plants that include flowers and plants that produce fruits which contain seeds. The male part of the plant is the pollen, and the female part of the flower is the stamen.

It is unclear as to what factors have caused the found result in the number of deceptive plants, since such species usually have fewer visits from pollinators as compared to non-deceptive species. This is because in the case of plants that trick the insects by using colours or scents, the insects temped by their senses quickly discover that the plant is not what is seems and will spend much less time on it (Ellis 2010). Nonetheless, by the point the pollinators have discovered their mistake and have pounced on the plant, thereby depositing pollen on the plant and taking some from the new plant, inadvertently helping the species pollinate (Ellis 2010).

The study, conducted by Dr. Allen Ellis and Dr. Steven Johnston suggests that sexually deceptive plants –meaning the angiosperms that give off sex pheromones similar to that of the specific pollinators they seek to attract, and in some cases visually imitate the insects they are trying to attract- evolved from food-deceptive varieties because of the fact that the sex-driven behaviour of the insects was more beneficial to the flower than food-deceptive behaviour (Ellis 2010). This is because when the pollinators receive food rewards from the flower this causes the plant damage, while the behaviour from the sexual exploitation of the insect left the plant undamaged (Ellis 2010).

In addition, in a group of European and Australian orchids it was shown that the plants that used sexual deceptive techniques had more pollen reach stigmas than the plants who used food deceptive techniques. It was shown that the sexual exploitation by the flowers of male bees and wasps led to long distance pollination, increasing the value of offspring (Ellis 2010).

Some flowers do not offer merely one type of deceptive behaviour though, but both sexual and food-deception. A prime example of this is the daisy, named Gortia diffusa, of which “diffusa” quite fittingly means “outspread” in Latin. The name is suiting of the flower whose long petals are brightly coloured and quite often contain insect-like decorations, attracting many insects such as the bombyliid fly, Megapalpus capensis (Ellis 2010). This species of fly appears to be attracted not only to the species of flowers’ petal spots, but also the nectar the plants offer. An interesting observation however was that the spotting on the daisy’s petals varied from plant to plant and even from individual to individual (Ellis 2010).

Although many plants use food to encourage animals and insects to pollinate them and spread their seeds, some use other methods like sexual deception. These mimicking flowers encourage mating behaviour in the insects that pollinate them, which in some cases has been strongly supported to be as, if not more effective than the food-exploitive behaviours of other plants (Ellis 2010). These deceptive behaviours seem to be geared towards specific species of insects. An example of this is the daisy, which attracted the bombyliid fly more often than other insects on average. Coincidence? Scientists think not.

Article: Ellis, Allan E., and Steven D. Johnson. "Floral Mimicry Enhances Pollen Export: The Evolution of Pollination by Sexual Deceit Outside of the Orchidaceae." The American Naturalist 176.5 (2010). The American Naturalist. Web. 13 Oct. 2010. .

Image: http://www.phenomenica.com/2009_12_01_archive.html

Wind Power Grown Closer to Home

Wind power is emerging as one of the leading sources of renewable, emissions-free energy. With growing concern around climate change and more regulations being put on greenhouse gases, countries are looking for alternatives to fossil fuel, and coal based sources of energy. Therefore wind power will play an important role in meeting the energy demands of the future. One of the challenges associated with wind power is that often times, the best suited locations for wind farms are far from the power plants and major cities that require the electricity.

Researchers at Duke University conducted a study to compare the energy generation in relation to cost, between local and distant wind farms. They used multiple sites in Illinois, transmitting electricity to a power station just outside of Chicago, to determine which method would be more cost effective in reaching the state’s renewable portfolio standards (Hoppock and Patrino-Echeveri 2010). Local was defined as within 50km of the station, and distant was defined as 550km to 750km. (Hoppock and Patrino-Echeveri 2010). The study was lead by David C. Hoppock and Dalia Patrino-Echeveri, who derived several formulas to find the least expensive means of meeting their energy requirements. They took into account electricity generated (KWh), historical wind records, types of turbines, height of turbines, distance of transmission, and transmission costs. Using these equations, it was concluded that overall, local wind resources were more cost effective in reaching the state requirement of 10,000 GWh of wind energy annually. Distant wind farms did have optimum conditions and produced the most electricity. However the construction costs of new transmission lines, upgrading the current system, and the loss of energy through heat over long distances cancelled out its benefits. There are exceptions, such as when distant sites are within 100km of existing transmission lines with the appropriate capacity, or the distance of new transmission line required is less than 25% of the distance between the wind farm and the station (Hoppock and Patrino-Echeveri 2010).

It is revealed that distant wind farming is not as economically viable as once thought. Considering the limited proximal sites, the growth of wind power may be hindered for the time being. The wind power business is still in its financial infancy, and investors are not yet ready to take such risks.

However the future for wind power still looks bright. This study was in regards to minimum state requirements, if we were looking at wind power generation on a greater scale, then distant wind farm sites would be far more useful. Some problems were highlighted that need to be addressed before that scale of generation can be reached. Hopefully in the near future there will be efficient and safe technologies for transporting electricity long distances. Possible carbon taxes and government subsidies may accelerate the shift toward wind power.

Wind power will be limited to small scale local sites for the time being, but as fossil fuels become more scarce and more emission are released contributing to global warming, more wind power is required. Wind power’s role in producing clean energy may be increased despite its financial costs.

References

Hoppock, David and Patrino-Echeveri, Dalia. 2010. Cost of Wind Energy: Comparing Distant Wind Resources to Local Resources in the Midwestern United States.

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es100751p#cor1 .ACS publications.

Our brains are under attack! …City/nature’s affect on the mind

By: Peter Guercio

A newly discovered threat to the human mind has just recently been researched and examined by scientists and the results are astonishing. This inconspicuous attacker is known now, to restrict the mental processes of all city dwellers such as their memory, and reduction of their self control. The culprit of our misfortune, dulling our minds and exhausting our thoughts are the same cluttered, busy city streets that we all venture through day in and day out.

Jonah Lehrer of the Boston globe wrote an article on this important and fascinating matter entitled How the city hurts your brain… and what can you do about it, in which he argues and describes in detail how the city is so detrimental to the human mind.

In the article scientific research and examples are strongly used to greatly prove what horrible side affects the city and all its clutter can have on the citizens thoughts and behaviour. One of the major points of the article is that its no wonder a species that evolved from the basic resides of nature with wide open spaces, are now having mental and physical health implications due to unnatural surroundings of crammed city streets.

Some results of the scientific experiments that were explained in the article were quit alarming such as when women were assigned to different apartment rooms, some facing natural seetings and others facing urban unnatural (city landscapes) for a certain numbe of months. After each set of women were measured on a variety of tasks and the researcher found that living in apartments facing nature were significantly better in basic motor skills and concentration than the women facing city environments. This test was done by Frances Kuo a director of landscape and Human Health Laboratory at the university of Illinois in the late 1990s, and it has demonstrated clear evidence that unnatural urban environments hinder human thought and activity.

As a Torontonian I grew up in the city and can safely that this article holds true, each time I went ventured to downtown Toronto I would always come home groggy and extremely tired and wasn’t sure what the reason was. This article made it clear to me that my exhaustion was due to the over stimulation of my brain, there were too many detractions (street lights, cell phones, various noises) that my brain attempted to process and was overrun. Furthermore it was evident to me that

This study has great implications towards the world that we live in, is it possible that we have revolutionized our way of living too quickly in these past years that it is unbearable for a brains to handle and the only way we can survive is to go back to our roots, which is nature. The article outlines this as a sort of last resort to save our minds from being taken over by meaningless thoughts of the jammed packed city streets. Nature is our only hope, if we want to live a stress free day without having to be completely disorientated at the end of it.

Modeling pests resistant to genetically altered, toxin producing crops

Researchers Vale´rie Lemesle, Ludovic Mailleret and Maurice Vaissayre have investigated a means to slow the evolution of pests that become evolutionarily resistant to genetically altered, toxic crops. In agriculture it is common practice to use crops that have been genetically altered to produce a toxin in order to keep certain pests from destroying farmer’s crops. Pests are progressively becoming more and more resistant to these modified crops. Continually modifying these plants is becoming economically unfeasible and so new practices must be considered.

A particular cropping system was considered during this study. The use of only toxin producing crops causes accelerated resistance in these pests so cycling between the use of toxin producing crops and non toxic producing ones is the main argument of this article. The hypothesis was that if every season farmers alternatively cycle between a field composed of a mixture of toxic and non toxic crops and a field of purely non toxic crops that the effects on the evolution of resistant pest would be slowed. It was found that, controversially, the increase in the portion of non toxin producing plants does not necessarily mean a lesser frequency of toxin resistant pest for the generations to come. An optimal ratio of the two crops which yields the best results was established during the study.

In this study the time that it takes to produce the next generation of pest was considered negligible. This means that this study although it shows evidence that this practice could help from evolving toxin resistant pests it can be practically applied only to a small variety of these pests. These results fit for pests like aphids. Aphids reproduce through parthenogenesis meaning that they bear offspring that are adult like constantly through the season. In order for this study to apply to most other species of pests new models would have to be made in order to account for the length of time that it requires generating the next generation of offspring.

It was deduced that although this practice can reduce the increase of toxin resistant pest, there is an optimal ratio of non toxic and toxic plants. The reason behind this is that there are two general categorizations of pests in this study. Pests that are susceptible to the toxins and those that are not. If the ratio of non toxic plants to toxic ones is too high, the entirety of the population will thrive more because both the susceptible pests and the unsusceptible ones have a more equal chance of surviving and procreating. With the right ratio, the susceptible pest’s numbers dwindle leaving the unsusceptible ones with fewer mates and thus the population declines.

Models illustrated in this study suggest that for certain species of pests the increase of evolutionary resistance to these toxins could be nearly halted. As previously stated this would only apply to small variety of pests that rear offspring witch are nearly mature upon being born and which are constantly giving birth to the next generation throughout the whole season.

A similar study was conducted during 2007 by Mohammed Awel. In this study he deduced the same result, that there is an optimal ratio of the crops that must be met to obtain the best results. Although this would seem counted intuitive it has a logical underpinning. This work used a hypothesis of immigration of susceptible pests into the system. It is said that in a further investigation it would be wise to include this immigration phenomenon into the study.

This study shows that there are environmentally friendly alternatives by witch the agricultural society is able to both maintain a field of crops and slow development of evolutionarily unsusceptible pests. Although this study is not entirely conclusive because it neglects a key aspect of most pest species, (the time between the maturation of the next generation of pests) it has cast light on new way of controlling those pests. The models produced by this study have deduced an optimal ratio of toxic and non toxic plants in order to slow the increase of there resistant pests and that it is possible to slow it to a near stop.

Organic materials: sources of nitrogen in the organic production of lettuce

When people walk into the grocery store and proceed to the fresh produce section. Often they are faced with a difficult question. Do I want organic lettuce or mass produced lettuce? Some choose the mass produced lettuce for reasons such as cost and quantity. Others are starting to choose the organic brands for a sense of better well-being. The organic brands tend to be more expensive than the mass produced brands, but they come with the peace of mind that they were grown in a natural environment. The organic farms don’t use pesticides or artificial manures. Since they don’t use artificial manures organic farmers have to find another way to enrich their soil with nutrients like nitrogen. Materials like animal manures, guano, soybean seeds, and forage pea see, are all naturally occurring compounds that contain lots of nitrogen (Maja, 2000). What people don’t know is do they work the same? Which one requires more work?

Scientists from Serbia and Slovenia recently published their findings from a two yearlong study looking at the nitrogen residue left from organic fertilizers compared to inorganic, and the rate at which the nitrogen became usable for the plants or mineralization rate. They did this by testing four different organic manures and compared it to a control. The materials tested consisted of farmyard manures, guano, soy beans, and forage seed. This was done by creating controlled environments within PVC containers. These containers were each treated with a fertilizer and were used to grow lettuce. Scientists Maja MANOJLOVIĆ1, Ranko ČABILOVSKI1, and Martina BAVEC conducted several tests on the lettuce and the soil in the environment in which the lettuce was grown. They paid particular attention to attributes like rate of nitrogen absorption, the rate at which nitrogen becomes useful to plants, and the amount of nitrogen left over once the plants have been harvested for each fertilizer (Maja, 2000). The data collected was then analyzed and conclusions drawn.

What was found during this study was interesting, in the fact that there was a minimal difference between organic fertilizers and artificial fertilizers (Maja, 2000). Though organic fertilizers are much less expensive and more cost effective it would make sense that organic farming would be more popular. Unfortunately organic farming is more expensive because it takes longer and there is a smaller yield. Though organic farming can be made cheaper due to studies like this one, since the study found that although the totally amount of nitrogen found in a fertilizer may differ from fertilizer to fertilizer, they may have the same output of nitrogen. This is because of the different chemical make-up of the different fertilizers. The study found that guano had the least amount of nitrogen content within it, but released the same amount of nitrogen as a manure fertilizer (Maja, 2000). This idea can have a great change on the way farmers choose to fertilize their fields. If a farmer is able to understand the rate at which nitrogen is released from the fertilizer he is using, there is a potential to be able to use smaller amounts of inexpensive organic materials rather than a large amount artificial fertilizer. Allowing farmers to save money on fertilizer and use it somewhere else.

The study also showed that along with artificial fertilizers, organic fertilizers if over used can have a nitrogen residue left in the soil after the plants are harvested. This is due to over fertilization, and can become a problem when the left over nitrogen residue forms into a nitrate. Nitrates often get into the water table and pollute ground water due to the run off from fertilized fields. Forage pea seed was the organic fertilizer that left the most nitrogen residue within the soil (Maja, 2000). It also showed that there was a connection between the climates that the fertilizers were used in drastically affected the rate of the nitrogen mineralization, and the amount of nitrogen residue left in the soil (Maja, 2000). With this being said each type of fertilizer has its positives and negatives.

Organic and artificial fertilizers each provides their own different advantages when put to use. In the study Organic materials: sources of nitrogen in the organic production of lettuce, different types of organic materials were used and tested to determine how much of a difference there was between organic and artificial fertilizers. From what was discussed within the journal one could deduct that the soils are almost the same. Each soil has specific attributes that make them better for certain situations and others do not. This meaning that when the lettuce was grown in the entire different sample there was little to no difference in growth of the plant. With that in mind and the new push for healthier lifestyles, just know the plant will grow virtually the same in organic fertilizers.

Bavec, M. , Cabilovski R. , Manojovic M. (2000). Organic materials: sources of nitrogen in the organic production of lettuce.

http://web.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&hid=13&sid=e5a7e75a-cca3-457c-a580-032a266a5b07%40sessionmgr12

Endangered Spotted Owls in B.C

The beautiful forests of British Columbia are currently in danger of being cut down. Forests are being logged everyday to provide us with raw materials such as timber to make paper, build homes, and make many other different products for our use. Forests are also cut down to make room for human settlement. Multi-level buildings, homes, and roads are built on top of what used to be dense areas of trees that wildlife used to call home. It is as rare as ever to find a forest with trees even just a hundred years old. When forests are cut down, wildlife lose their homes. Animals are forced to relocate or die. All the plant species in the forest die, and biodiversity is lost.
Spotted owls are an endangered species in Canada and are close to becoming extirpated. They naturally occupy older forests and require older forests for their survival. But as forests are constantly being cut down, it is becoming harder and harder for spotted owls to find old forests to live in.
The benefits that come from logging do not only include the collection of resources and more space for human settlement, but also benefits to our economy. One of the biggest industries in Canada is our logging industry because we have vast amounts of forests that not many other countries have. Logging also provides jobs for thousands of people across the country.
But is logging forests more economically valuable than conserving them? Looking past our moral obligations to protect the habitats of our countries wildlife, which is more valuable? Most people would think that logging forests adds more economical value to the country but that is false. Most people also think conserving forests is too expensive, but that is also false.
Duncan Knowler and Kristen Dust who are researchers at Simon Fraser University conducted a study to see the economic value of older forests. They proved that forest conservation was not too expensive and that conserving forests is actually more economically valuable than not.
Knowler and Dust looked at 81 different scenarios, and out of the 81, 72 of them showed that conserving the forests would benefit the economy more than logging them. Log prices could rise for many different reasons. For example, the demand for logs could become a lot higher than the amount of logs there are, and the cost of logs would rise. Underestimating that the price of carbon is $75 a tonne with a 4% discount rate, the net value of forests would be 1.76 billion dollars. But with even just limited conservation of forests, the net value already rises to 1.82 billion dollars and with high conservation of forests the net value rises to 1.83 billion dollars.
If log prices stayed the same because the demand for logs was the same as the amount there were, the trend would be the same for if log prices rose. The more the forests were conserved, the higher the net value became. Log prices could become lower because there are more logs than needed, or because the quality of the wood gets worse. Old trees have better fibres in the wood which make them better quality than the wood of new trees. Again, if more forests were better conserved the net value of forests would rise in this situation as well. Less carbon taxes would have to be paid with less logging and there might possibly be even some left to sell which would save even more money.
Forests do not only benefit our economy but also benefit us in many other ways. Conserving forests provide chances for people to take walks in nature and do other recreational activities. They also reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and increase our quality of water. They also provide other raw materials rather than logs to go to use and be manufactured. Many other benefits would come with conserving forests, including the habitats of spotted owls to be saved.
This study has showed that it is better to conserve forests than log them. It is better for the environment, better for the economy, and also better for the endangered spotted owls in British Columbia. There are many different strategies that are being put into effect to save these birds such as the 1997 Provincial Spotted Owl Management Plan, but we may no longer stick to the status quo. Conserving forests should become a priority and it will benefit us all.

Reference:
http://www.davidsuzuki.org/publications/downloads/2008/Knowler-Dust.pdf

Wind-borne wasps can pollinate fig trees at exceptional distances

In nature there exists many delicate relationships that are crucial to a species’ survival. Particularly exceptional is the essential bond between African fig trees (Ficus sycomorus L.) and a very small fig wasp (Ceratosolen arabicus). Of the roughly 800 unique species of fig trees alive today, each relies, exclusively, on just one or a few host specific wasps for pollination (Heere et al. 2008).

In order to understand just how delicate this relationship is, it is helpful to examine the unique life cycle of the fig wasp. These small, slow moving wasps have only 48 hours of life to carry out their inherited duties. As explained by DeHaan, wasps are born within a cavity of the fig tree’s fruit where they must find a mate and tunnel out of the fig. Upon the female’s escape, she collects pollen from the fig, which she then transports with her to another fig tree of the same species. Once a tree is found, she burrows into another fig cavity, thereby pollinating the fruit, and lays her eggs. This fruit will be the female’s final resting place as the process of entering the fig usually removes her wings, rendering her unable to escape. This process would appear to be a daunting task in African landscapes plagued, by deforestation where fig trees are often highly isolated and appear in very low densities.

This interesting relationship sparked a question in PhD student Sofia Ahmed from the University of Leeds, United Kingdom. In African areas, with a fair number of very isolated trees just, how far are these wasps able to travel in order to reach new host trees? And perhaps more importantly, do factors contributing to low population densities, like deforestation, pose a significant threat to a fig tree’s ability to pollinate?

Ahmed and her team mapped the fig tree population starting at the base of the Ugab River (Namibia) going 240 km inland. 79 different trees in the area were mapped by GPS and leaf and seed samples were collected from each. The collected seeds were germinated in a lab and subjected to paternity analysis. These results were then compared to DNA extracted from the leaf samples in order to determine the father trees.

As stated by Ahmed et al. (2009) tracking the movement of fig wasps via their pollen cargo would reveal both the distance and direction of travel. The results found were very intriguing. The distances between assigned parents ranged from 14.2 km to 164.7 km with a mean separation of 88.6 km. Similarly, all fathers were located east of the study area. Both of these observations lead to the conclusion that the wasps were riding the westerly prevailing wind currents; currents that were capable of helping wasps travel well over 100 km in a single night.

An additional 14 unknown fathers were needed to account for all of the fig tree offspring. These fathers were trees outside of the tested area and therefore, were potentially, located even farther away than the farthest trees in the test area; 164.7 km inland.

Interestingly, it was also noted that crop size was independent of a tree’s isolation. The first tree tested was perhaps the most isolated, with the closest tree being 81.6 km away, however it had a large, healthy crop of mature figs. The large magnitudes of both the tree separation and the average distance traveled by wasps (88.6 km) suggest that pollination does not usually occur between close proximity trees. This increases genetic diversity within populations and gene flow between populations.

The Ugab region experiences a change in direction of prevailing winds during the summer season. During these months, predominately easterly currents exist during the nighttime. This change led Ahmed et al. (2009) to predict “a seasonal reversal in the direction of pollen flow between trees.” Therefore, trees isolated east of the majority of the population would be pollinated as well.

The results of this study provide great insight into the endurance of African fig trees. The trees’ unique pollination system has rendered them largely resistant to many threats that can cripple species, not only Namibia but all over the world. It can be inferred that habitat loss and population defragmentation due to deforestation and other human activities do not pose a significant threat to fig tree populations. The African fig tree and its wasp have become very accustomed to a long-distance relationship.

Based on article

Ahmed, Sofia, et al. "Wind-borne insects mediate directional pollen transfer between desert fig trees 160 kilometers apart." Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences 106.48 (2009): 20342-20347.

Other Resources

Dehaan, Mike. The life cycle of the fig wasp. 13 October 2010 .

Heere, Edward Allen, K. Charlotte Jander and Carlos Alberto Machado. "Evolutionary ecology of figs and their associates: Recent progress and outstanding puzzles." The Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics (2008): 439-458.

Population's Effect on Climate Change

A new study, conducted by Brian C. O’Neill and his team of researchers, suggests that populations can have a significant effect on the environment, specifically on the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. The researchers say that throughout this century there will be significant changes in population sizes, ageing and in urbanization, and this is the key focus of the study in determining “the implications of demographic change for global emissions of carbon dioxide” (O’Neill et al).

This new demographic study has shown that an increase in population and the development of more urban regions (urbanization) will increase emissions by at least 25% or more. The researchers developed their own model to provide these results; called the PET, Population-Environment-Technology model, which they say is used to “assess the global implications of demographic change by using scenarios based on economic growth, energy use, and emissions” (O’Neill et al). Their developed model took into account many different and unique aspects that had to do with population, environmental and technological factors, such as: i) the impact of population growth on economic growth rates, ii) the ageing of populations and how it affects labour supply, iii) urbanisation, and the anticipated demographic changes.This makes their research unique and therefore it can aid in shedding more light on this important issue that so affects the world by providing new and innovative information.

The scientists explain that until this new model, most research had only contained population projections but none of the research considered the "demographic influences" on emissions. As the researchers wrote, it is important to include this information because other projects had not taken into consideration the fact “that, thought there are exceptions, such as the US, population growth tends to be highest where per capita emissions are lowest” (O’Neill et al).

The results of the research show that there are many long term effects that will be the outcome of certain precautions and measures taken; population ageing, for example, can reduce emissions by 20% as a long term effect. This can be explained by the fact that as populations age, meaning the number of elderly increases and overcome the number of youths, the labour supply will decrease thereby causing a decline in the economy. Also older populations tend to have smaller homes and therefore have lower emissions.

The scientists believe that more research should be conducted in this area and better modelling be done to “improve our understanding of the potential range of future energy demand and emissions” (O’Neill et al). That information could be used to form strategies for dealing with any complications that arise in the future. One such strategy could be family planning policies that limit the number of births per family thereby reducing population growth and thus benefitting the environment over time.

The scientists would like to make clear that this information is relative to the interpretation of certain key words and aspects. For example the term urbanization for them means that it is not limited only the geographic term to represent where people live and at which density, but also includes the rate at which urban regions grow, with the appropriate economic changes related to it. In their model they show the affects that labour supply will have on the growth of the economy, while other analysis of the data ignore these things and instead focus only on the “differences in lifestyles and consumption patterns”. Therefore it is entirely possible to glean entirely different conclusions about the effect of urbanization on emissions simply by the different interpretation of one word’s definition. And so this is important to keep in mind when reading so that there are no misconceptions or misinterpretations of the information.

It would seem therefore that every day more and more technologies and strategies are being thought of and executed or are at least in the process of being executed, with the purpose of sustaining our environment, and therefore our own lives on this planet. Hopefully all this will bring about a good outcome and we can look forward to the future of our collective home.

References

O'Neill. Brian, Dalton. Micheal, Fuchs. Regina, Jiang. Leiwen, Pachauri. Shonali, Zigova. Katarina

www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1004581107

Could Climate Change and Habitat Destruction led to an increase in Species Diversity?

By: Megan Nelson

As the rate of climate change and habitat destruction increases, a better method in determining a species’ survival becomes more important. With better models, scientists would better be able to predict which species are at risk of extinction and have a better chance of protecting them. However, determining an appropriate model that encompasses the many variables in nature is difficult. For instance, the effects of habitat destruction compared to the rate of climate change, which occur simultaneously, all the while comparing the evolutionary traits present in a species is extremely difficult. Nevertheless, each variable should be given consideration in order to better understand the survival rate of a species.

In a recent study led by Francisca Soares dos Santos, a simulation was used to determine the survival rate of four “species” based on habitat destruction, the rate of climate change, and four trade-offs that compared colonizing abilities to competitive abilities. The paper was published online as of September 2010 as a part of the Ecological Modelling Journal, and is scheduled to be published in the November 24 2010 issue.

The study began by using four different traits thought to span the general abilities of organisms in an ecosystem. The traits were placed in two different categories: colonizing ability, which consisted of the average dispersal distance (such as seeds in plants) and the production rate of seeds; the second category was the competitive ability, consisting of adult mortality rate and the competitive strength of seeds (for instance, by how much they weigh). These traits, arranged into four different trade-offs, dealt with colonizing versus competition: average dispersal distance vs. adult mortality rate, average dispersal distance vs. the competitive strength of seeds, seed production rate vs. adult mortality rate, and seed production rate vs. competitive strength of seeds.

The four “species” used to demonstrate the effects of the trade-offs, rate of climate change, and habitat destruction were arranged based on the ability to colonize: best, good, poor, and poorest. All four “species” underwent a different trade-off, and within each trade-off, was subjected to 70% indirect (such as change in food abundance) and 70% direct (such as a forest wipeout) habitat destruction. In each scenario (i.e. four “species”, one trade-off, and one type of habitat destruction), the rate of climate change was observed at relatively low and high rates. In addition, each scenario was compared to the result of no habitat destruction.

The study focused on the rate of decline, or increase, of the “species” in each scenario to determine which ones would survive in certain environmental stresses. In each scenario, habitat destruction lowered the diversity of “species”, but the amount by which it lowered was dependant on the trade-off. Regardless of the type of habitat destruction, an increase in climate change appeared to increase diversity in the average dispersal distance trade-offs compared to the rate of seed production trade-offs.

For the average dispersal distance trade-offs in indirect habitat destruction, the good and poor colonizer “species” were able to survive relatively low rates of climate change. For direct habitat destruction, the poor and poorest colonizers, or the best competitors, were able to survive the same amount of climate change. In the trade-off of seed production rate vs. adult mortality rate at low levels of climate change, for both indirect and direct habitat destruction, all “species” tend to survive, although at lower amounts. For low levels of climate change, and in both types of habitat destruction, for the seed production rate vs. competitive strength of seeds trade-off, the best and good colonizers tend to survive. In high levels of climate change, for both types of habitat destruction, only the best and good colonizers survived or only the best colonizer survived, depending on the trade-off. Overall, the diversity in both indirect and direct habitat destruction decreased for low levels of climate change. For high levels of climate change, there were three possible outcomes in the overall change in diversity. For the trade-offs of the average dispersal distance, in both habitat destructions, the maximum diversity is at the intermediate level of habitat destruction. For the trade-off of seed production rate vs. adult mortality rate, the diversity level was zero because only one type of “species” survived. Finally, for the trade-off of seed production rate vs. competitive strength of seeds, also in both habitat destructions, the diversity decreased with increasing habitat destruction. Overall, the best, good, and poor colonizers have the best chance of surviving habitat destruction, depending on the type of trade-off, and the rate of climate change.

This study appears to answer the problem of determining a model that predicts the survival of species given many variables. The model and methods that were used (i.e. the trade-offs) showed that traits must be taken into account in order to understand the combined effects of habitat destruction and climate change. For example, scientists must observed a species’ trait to colonize poorly to properly determine its survival based on habitat and climate changes. Using this knowledge of combined effects becomes very relevant in understanding and predicting the response of species and ecosystems to both climate and land change.

Word Count: 849

Reference

Soares dos Santos, F., Johst, K., Huth, A., and Grimm, V. (2010, November). Interacting effects of habitat destruction and changing disturbance rates on biodiversity: Who is going to survive? Ecological Modelling, 221 (23), 2776-2783. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2010.08.005

A Bug's Life

In our century increasing societal, environmental and economic pressures force us to develop new agricultural pest management strategies (Lima and Berryman, 2006). The main goals of the research is to find ways to decrease environmental degradation from the use of chemicals, reduce the amount of weeds and how to increase crop yield. Simulation models are being done by the University of Budapest and they are examining the relationships between pests, plants and the environment. They are engaging in several studies that investigate the impact on insect populations caused by global warming. Some of these studies are done in laboratories and others require field observations and discoveries.
There are a few methods of gathering research and information. The use of Palaeontology is one of them. By looking into a regions past we can see how that region has changed in respect to vegetation and insects. For example, the transition from parkland vegetation and insects to the one of coniferous forest of south-western Ontario region indicates that the climate continued gradually warm through the mid-Holocene (Schwert et al., 1985). The increasing temperature allows insects to thrive in places before could not of survived.
Another way of gathering research is by using simulation models. It is a handy tool that is used to find out the reaction of a system to an event or multiple events. One of the models is called the Northern Corn ROOTWORM Model and is described as a process - orientated simulation model that examines the population dynamics of corn - rootworm in the northern United States. The rootworm attacks both the roots and tassels of corn, decreasing yields. The model examines how planting date affects the population dynamics of the insects. It gives information on phenology and the number of individuals in each growth state of corn. The model can analyze global change impact on the population levels and distribution of the insects, as well as the potential economic impacts (Norango and Sawyer, 1989). There are other models such as the boundary layer model and boll weevil model that help scientists to gather information and come to conclusions.
Weather and climate are major factors that determine the development and spreading of insects. Current estimates of changes in climate indicate an increase in global mean annual temperature of 1 degree Celsius by 2025 and 3 degree Celsius by the end of the next century (Memmott et al., 2007). The forecasted increase in temperature will surely increase the population of bug sizes and there ability to live in areas that were once before inhabitable. Also forecasted increases in CO2 in the air are most likely to have an affect on insect and plant interactions. Insect populations tended to increase slightly when there was elevated CO2. The combination of increasing temperatures and elevated CO2 levels may increase insect damage to certain plants. Humidity and solar radiation will also have a large effect on insect populations in the future. All of the above changes in climate will likely increase insect transport from region to region.
Elevated CO2 even though it may increase insect population size, it will have a more positive effect on crops. These effects include yield stimulation, improved resource use efficiency, more successful competition with weeds, reduced O3 toxicity, and in some cases better pest and disease resistance. However, some of these beneficial effects may be lost, at least to some extent, in a warmer climate. Warming accelerates plant development and reduces grain-fill, reduces nutrient-use efficiency, increases crop water consumption and favours weeds over crops. Also, the rate of development of insects may be increased (Fuhrer, 2003). The warming favours insects more then the plants. There will be less days in the winter that are really cold and this will allow the insects to have a higher survival rate.
Examining the results of the experiments it is hard to draw any conclusions. Even though plant populations will most likely increase due to the warming we do not know how plants will react to it. Also with increased technology comes newer ways to kill insects. More research will need to be done before any conclusions can be drawn on this topic, but one thing is for sure is that we will have to brace for a future that is unknown and hope we can control the insects.
Article can be found at.... http://www.ecology.kee.hu/indvol08_2.htm

http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2009/10/27/article-1223299-06F9C706000005DC-892_964x639.jpg image

References





Fuhrer, J. (2003): Agroecosystem responses to combinations of elevated CO2, ozone, and
global climate change. – Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 97(1-3): 1-20.
Lima, M., Berryman, A., (2006): Predicting nonlinear and non-additive effects of climate:
the Alpine ibex revisited. – Clim. Res. 32: 129-135.
Memmott, J., Craze, P.G., Waser, N.M., Price, M.V. (2007): Global warming and the
disruption of plant–pollinator interactions. – Eco Let. 10: 710-717.
Norango, S.E., Sawyer, A.J. (1989): A simulation model of northern corn rootworm.
Diabrotica barberi, population dynamics, oviposition: significance of host-plant
phenology. – Can. Ent. 121: 169-191.
Schwert, D.P., Anderson, T.W., Morgan, A., Morgan, A.V., Karrow, P.F. (1985):
Changes in late Quaternary vegetation and insect communities in southwestern Ontario. –
Quaternary Research 23(2): 205-226.

If you take their homes, They'll come for ours.

Recently there have been coyote sighting on the golf courses in New York City. This may seem strange to you, and it does to the people of New York. People have become accustom to seeing these stray dogs all around the city. The coyotes have been kicked out of their homes, and are now migrating into ours. Why would they complain they get free food from all the garbage around the city. They haven’t just adapted to the New Yorker life style, but you can find coyotes all around the United States and Canada. They have migrated like wild fire since the early 1900's (Ketcham 2010).
It may seem strange that the coyotes would be found mainly around a golf course. They might be staying due to the small creatures that are easy targets (Ketcham 2010). It could also be due to the nature like surroundings, being compared to the rest of the city. Either way the coyotes have made it clear that they are now a part of the New York society, along with others. The coyotes have adapted to where they are now living we can see the difference in the western and the eastern coyote. Eastern coyotes tend to be bigger in size, and more muscular to compete with their relative the wolf (Ketcham 2010). Whereas the western coyote is smaller in size weighing in around 30 pounds and tending to look like a fat fox (Ketcham 2010).
Christopher Ketcham did a little study on the migration of the coyotes in New York City but did not have much success in the beginning. He would go around searching for coyotes and some of the golfers would snicker at him "Saw more of your little friends just the other day"(Ketcham 2010). Despite the discouragement from the golfers, Ketcham found a Wildlife biologist in New York City parks department named Dave Kunstler to work with. They would search for the coyotes and discover what they were up to. Little success did Ketcham and Kunstler have, they felt as though they were being stalked more than being the stalkers. The coyotes tended to have a stalker impression on some of the golfers. One man had a coyote follow him while riding in the golf cart. When he got out the coyote would back off, when he got in it would come forward. The coyote would run alongside the cart, and when it stops so did the coyote. He would just stare at the golfers as they teed off, waiting for them to move again (Ketcham 2010).
So far the coyotes have not been much of a nuisance, even though they are thought of as being pests. Some people fear for their small animals keeping them inside so they don’t get snatched up by the coyotes. Others let the coyotes be, living beside them peacefully. One lady stopped to pick up a stray injured pup, brought it home only to discover it was actually a coyote. She brought it up just like she would any other dog, but once it became of age it tended towards its wild side. The lady was forced to free the animal from her home, as it was destroying it from its wild instincts (Ketcham 2010). There have always been stories of how people would bring home wild animals and bring them up to try and tame them. The animal instinct would always come out in the end, like it needed to be free.
By taking over the coyotes land and homes we have lead them into our own cities and homes. This has not only happened with coyotes but with many other creatures that have been forced to move due to human development. This is an environmental issue that many creatures are being forced to migrate, or have become extinct due to human impact. Some people can’t see what’s right in front of them, and that is that we are causing all of this to happen. We are forcing these creatures to move into our cities and into our homes. They don’t have a place to live and just decide to come and invade our homes; they are forced into migration so that we can have bigger and better homes. What can be done about this is the main question, how can we help the animals, and give them back their space, but still have enough space for us.
Resource:
Ketcham, Christopher. "New Dog in Town." Orion Magazine. Orion Magazine, 10/2010. Web. 13 Oct 2010.

Picture credit:

advocacy.britannica.com

The Inevitable, Incredible Future in Biofuels

The going will be tough for the future of biofuels, but with effort, they could just save us.

Petroleum is currently the most widely used form of fuel for combustion engines in the world. Second to that is the diesel engine. But what if all of that could change? Our world is possibly on the brink of a major readjustment in production, manufacture and sources of our goods, including our fuel sources due to increased energy demand and environmental awareness. Scientists are working to keep up with this demand, and biofuels could provide the answer to the problem. A study called “Biodiesel Production from various feedstocks and their effects on the fuel properties” published in 'The Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology; Official Journal of the Society for Industrial Microbiology', looked into the properties of these ‘biofuels’, particularly biodiesels, and proposed how they could work for humanity and what must be improved before this could happen. The methods introduced and ideas set across are an incredible step forward in our goal to become more environmentally friendly.
Biodiesel is a new, renewable source of energy, that is, obviously, of biological origin. Feedstocks of biofuels are primarily vegetable oils. However, other options, such as waste cooking oils, restaurant greases, soapstock and animal fats are also being considered (though they will be harder to test at this point and must be significantly improved in terms of efficiency). Vegetable oils have been used since the invention of the diesel engine in 1900. Though until 1980, they were written off due to engine complications. The oil crisis in 1970 brought back the idea of using biodiesels and since then, the idea has been greatly expanded. The main problem faced when using biofuels was their high viscosity and low volatility. The chemical structure of diesel, along with its lighter molecular weight, makes it a much better candidate than biofuels at this point in time. But research and testing is being conducted constantly to try to even out the playing field between the two.
The problem with biodiesels at this point in time lies primarily in the area of cost. In the current economy, the price of vegetable oil is too high to be considered for fuel. The other options, as listed above, would cost less, but they do not function as well as refined oil and fatty acid sources, like the vegetable oil. Regular diesel is, at this point, the most cost efficient and best for the engines. However, besides the cost, biofuels have many advantages. When burned, exhaust emissions decrease drastically: 20% in CO, 30% in HC, 40% in particulate matter and 50% in soot emission. NO (and similar) gases do increase by 10-15%, but even this can be compensated for by retarding the fuel-injection timing (Canakci and Sanli).
The study also examines the ways in which biodiesels can be improved to close the distance between them and diesels. Of the four methods currently being experimented, trans-esterification seems to be the most promising. This involves the splitting of triglycerides in fatty acids and oils to make them more efficient and closer in chemical makeup to diesel. When trans-esterification works, the viscosity of biodiesels is lowered and their cetane number and heating value are saved, thus making them more efficient. Biodiesels are biodegradable, non-toxic, almost sulphur-less, non-aromatic and environmentally friendly, even more so when they have gone through trans-esterification. They are also a much better engine lubricant than regular diesel. Concentrating even 1% of diesel fuel with biodiesels significantly increases the lubrication of the fuel, therefore increasing engine productivity.
Production of biofuels around the world has greatly increased in the past few years. According to the study, the production in the 3 years prior to 2008 in the European Union increased two and a half fold. The European Union and the US are the two main producers of biofuels around the world, and for good reason, as they are also main consumers of all different types of fuels. If north America, Europe and other major consumers were to increase their biofuel usage by even a tiny amount, we could decrease the effects of emissions significantly, perhaps even bring us that much closer to the Kyoto protocol (and other) goals, which are proving difficult to reach.
Biofuels and their production are expensive. The economic situation for them has gone from bad to worse in the last few years (Canakci and Sanli). The study suggests that in order for them to become a reality, they must become more economically viable; in other words they must be able to compete with diesel. They must be equivalent in as many ways as possible. Viscosity, density, cetane number, flash point, cold-flow properties and oxidation stability are all factors being evaluated, and are all very important to the productivity of biodiesels. This study explains how much more viable biofuels would be if these factors were to be improved upon.
The world is at its peak in terms of sustainability. All options are being considered, and as far as this study goes, it is well worth it to look into biofuels. They may have their disadvantages, but even now, the future looks bright. If biodiesels were to be improved even a little bit, we may well have a major factor in the solution to our deteriorating habitat.

Canakci, M, and H Sanli. "Biodiesel Production from various feedstocks and their effects on the fuel properties." Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology; Official Journal of the Society for Industrial Microbiology (2008): 13 March, 2008. Web. 14 Oct 2010. http://www.springerlink.com/content/e562773v17970310/fulltext.html

By: Rebecca Fyfe
October 14, 2010

Global Warming Threatens the Home of Mt. Everest

The Himalayas are home to planet Earth’s tallest mountain, Mount Everest which along with its other towering peaks are being threatened by global warming. Along with the mountains, plant species and humans within the mountains and along the basins are at risk because of temperature increases in the rivers that nourish the ecosystem and have been watering the crops of humans for thousands of years. As countries are beginning to step up by addressing their environmental issues, the Government of India has the Himalayas making its way to the top of their list.


Research by Singh et al. shows that decreases in the temperature of the Himalayas will alter migration patterns of animals; affect the severity of India’s monsoons further altering the temperature of the mountains bordering areas. The actual rate at which the Himalayas are warming have been observed to be much greater than the actual global average rate while increases are more significant in the winter than in the summer. This increase in temperature is causing the glaciers of the Ganges to retreat which is significant for the rivers which rely on the glaciers for up to 70% of their water flow during the summer months.


In Himalayan areas where there are down slopes in the relief the water from melting glaciers and the rainfall are combining to create flooding and landslides. The snow melted water benefits many of the plant species because they usually rely on the monsoon season for water but once all the glaciers are gone, the species will likely die due to the decrease in water consumption they were used to. Animals such as the pika, a small mammal who evades warmer temperatures in the mountains by crawling into crevices will have decreased hours to find food and resting places. In general, the animals living in that ecosystem will soon have to adapt to terrain and food chain limitations opening them to new meals and foes.


With increased temperatures comes variation in the way crops grow, if the growth of fruits and vegetables begin to decline and supplies are exhausted then malnutrition will be seen predominantly in the children and women of the Himalayan area. It is usually relied upon cold weathered winters to kill microbes and bacteria which cause sickness and diseases to humans in the river waters which are unfiltered. With higher water temperatures in the winter these bacteria and microbes have a head start on growth leaving people who drink the water more likely to suffer or even die.


The issue of global warming in this particular situation comes down to the populations of people in areas of India, Pakistan, Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and Burma who must adapt their modes of life to the changes in their surroundings. The problem is many of the people in these regions don’t have the money to uproot their families and jobs and restart elsewhere. Already there is work being put into technologies which will increase production of crops but disease and death due to water contamination through global warming will take lives of the less fortunate just trying to make ends meet.


Due to its relief and regional politics, the countries that encircle the Himalayan Mountains will be at a far greater manipulated by global warming. It is up to the governments in the surrounding countries to put in plans to weather the storm of global warming, paying to have new and innovative technologies, one which would make crop growth easier and a water purification system to protect their citizens from sickness and possible death. Most of all the governments should have their CO₂emissions reduced to target the root of the problem which is global warming. If they can make steps toward making their countries more environmentally friendly then the 70 million year old Himalayas may remain the home of plant species, animals, humans, wonder and awe for years to come.


References:

Singh, S.P; Singh, V; Skutsch,M. (2010). Rapid warming in the Himalayas: Ecosystem responses and development options. Climate and Development, vol.3, 221-232.

Tailings from Oil Sands Creating Toxic Wetlands for Wood Frogs

Tailings from Oil Sands Creating Toxic Wetlands for Wood Frogs

In a recent study published in Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry in September 2010, contained data which branches the connection between the age of wetlands and toxicity level of oil sands process-affected material (OSPM) in which wetlands were reclaimed with. The study was carried out using the test subjects to determine the reasoning behind the reduction of OSPM levels of toxicity over time, testing the conditions of various reclaimed and control/reference sites. The subjects used in the test were wood frogs (Rana sylvatica), native to the area, and are anticipated to live in such wetlands containing tailing materials. The uses of amphibians are very useful tools in determining changes in toxicity of aquatic environments, over a small period of time (Harris et al. 2001).

The oil sands refining process produces not only crude oil, but also sand and most importantly water containing suspended fine particles making up OSMP, that contain such toxic materials (not limited to aquatic life) as; naphthenic acids (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which can increase pH and salinity levels in aquatic environments. The OSMP, which are produced in the extraction process, are called tailings, and are held in large tailing ponds until operation of these mine sites end, in which reclamation methods must be put in place. The reclamation method used is “wet landscape”, this involves the use of the tailing materials to create new wetlands, in efforts to try and imitate the ecological role of naturally occurring wetlands.

The study conducted used a variety of wetland sites located 40 km north of Fort McMurray, Alberta, on mining sites used for oil sand extraction. A total of 14 different wetlands were used in the experiment, containing four separate categories of wetland site classification; young reference or old reference wetlands (controls), and young reclaimed or old reclaimed wetland sites. Old tailing-affected wetlands (old reclaimed) are at least seven years or older, while young reclaimed wetland sites are equal to or less than seven years old. The “reference” wetlands used have never received tailing materials directly or indirectly. The subjects were fed fresh boiled lettuce every two days, along with air temperature and water temperature readings during these times. Four caged enclosures were set in each wetland; every enclosure was stocked with 50 tadpole larvae. The developmental progress of the tadpoles was studied closely until the metamorphic climax (fore-limb development) was reached. The metamorphic climax was compared to Gosner stage 42 (Gosner scale is used to describe the progress of maturity based on anatomical features). The study continued for 52 to 75 days, depending on the percentage of tadpoles that reached metamorphic climax (75%).

The data presented in the results form the study show that the survival rate of tadpoles was generally low in young wetlands containing OSPM (young reclamation wetlands). Over generations of amphibians, this direct exposure to oil sands process-affected material in tailings, like toxic compounds such as NAs and PAHs, could put amphibian populations in danger. The reclaimed wetland areas constructed by oil sand companies, on oil sands mine sights are not immediately inhabitable for amphibians like the wood frog. The results shown by the study indicates that poor survival rates existed in young reclaimed wetlands. Young reclaimed wetlands had a 41.5%, 62.6% and 54.7% higher mortality rate of tadpoles than that of old reclaimed, young reference and old reference wetlands. Survival rates in old reclaimed wetlands suggest that maturing time for young OSMP wetlands to be inhabitable is seven years. Toxicity levels decrease of the seven years, enough to have old wetlands with toxic levels comparable to that of the reference wetlands. Old reclaimed wetlands contained a noticeable lower toxicity that that of young reclaimed wetland sites. The reduced toxic levels in old reclaimed wetlands sites is caused by the breakdown of some NAs and PAHs by microbes, but this process takes at least seven to 15 years for the toxic level to plateau to an inhabitable level for amphibians like the wood frog. The oil sands tailing materials used to create the manmade wetlands have an effect on the survival and growth of an amphibian like the wood frog. The results proved evidence that amphibian life can be sustained in wetlands containing OSMP (tailing materials), only if the wetland is seven years or older, but if the wetland is too young, amphibian life cannot sustain a functional population, with such a high mortality rate.

Hersikron, H.D., Ciborowski, J., Smits, J. 2010. The effects of oil sands wetlands on wood frogs (Rana sylvatica). Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 92(8): 1513-1527.

Water Pollution from Shrimp Farming

In Asia shrimp farming plays a very important role, as it contributes to the overall economic development of the country. As a result of the numerous shrimp farms, there is a very harsh reality for the surrounding environment. Predominately in Vietnam is where a lot of pollution occurs from shrimp farming. From 2008, the area used for shrimp farming has decreased but the

production has increased. This has posed many questions for environmental researchers. The pond sizes have declined about 9% and the amount of shrimps produced has increased by 10%. The farming in Vietnam has not been very successful, with poor soil and the constant disease outbreaks. Farmers tend to turn to pesticides, antibiotics and large amounts of feed in shrimp farming. This has caused the release of harmful pollutants, which can be avoided by using different techniques of farming.

With the use of fertilizers and other chemicals in shrimp farming, it leads to very polluted waste waters. These waste waters end up in the surrounding environment, contaminating the sediment and soil. The fertilizers are used to increase the food for shrimp in the form of algae. This is the main cause of polluting the waters and producing harmful waste waters from the shrimp farming. After two months of the farming operations, the ponds exceeded the standard amount of pollutants. “Antibiotic concentration in shrimp ponds may do harm to the environment and contribute to the increasing drug resistant diseases,” says scientist who is researching the effects of shrimp farming. When the ponds get polluted, this is the perfect environment for pathogenic organisms, which can cause harm. Once the diseases are detected it is even hard to control them because of how open the land and water relationship is. This shows how, we sometimes may not know where our food is coming from and it could lead to an epidemic on a global level.

In Vietnam since money is usually a big issue, this can lead to the farmers unable to provide living conditions for the shrimp. The farmers are unable to buy the correct technologies, which reduce the amount of pollutants from the shrimp farming procedures. The income of shrimp farmers varies a lot, making them hesitant to buy any new equipment for their farms. Also, the farmers fear their shrimp will fail and in return they want to use the chemical to ensure they survive. Vietnam has now introduced the food safety on the their shrimp to ensure disease will not spread. There has recently been less cases of contaminated shrimp in the consumer markets. The farmers just want to make a living and in return cause damage to the environment.

Overall the ways the farmers will be able to reduce the pollution from the shrimp farms is to reduce the amount of feed and use ozone aeration. The ozone aeration procedure increases the quality of the pond water, which reduces the pollution in the water. With less feed there will be less feed residue, which is the cause of the sludge in the ponds. The sludge contaminates the sediment. These two major ways of reducing the pollution in shrimp ponds can make a huge to different in preventing diseases and contamination. As a result most of the shrimp farms in Vietnam are exceeding the amount of the pollution in their ponds. However, there are still a few farms which are obeying the regulations. The farmers will also be greatly affected by the pollution, since the waste waters can enter their water system as well. Is it really worth it to be able to produce a lot of shrimp at the cost of creating destructive diseases?

By: Ashley Venner

References:
Thi Anh,P., Kroeze, C,. Bush, S,. Mol, A. (2010) Water pollution by intenstive brackish shrimp farming in south-east vietnam: causes and options for control. Agricultural water management. Volume 97, issue 6.